Twelve Korean infectious bronchitis viruses (IBVs) were isolated in the field from chickens suspected of being carriers of infectious bronchitis between 2001 and 2003. The S1 glycoprotein genes of these IBV isolates were amplified by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RTPCR) and analyzed by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis. These Korean IBV isolates were classified into three groups according to their RFLP patterns obtained using the restriction enzyme HaeIII. Half of the twelve isolates were similar to the KM91 RFLP pattern, which is a common pattern in Korea. Three more isolates were related to the Arkansas strain pattern, but with some unique variations. The other three viruses showed variant RFLP patterns. For a comparison with the published sequences for non-Korean IBV strains, amplified PCR products from the twelve isolates were cloned and sequenced. The Korean IBV field isolates had 71.2-99.7% nucleotide sequence homology with each other and 45.9-80.7% nucleotide sequence homology with non-Korean IBV strains. With respect to the deduced amino acid sequence, the Korean IBV isolates had 71.5-99.3% similarity with each other and 44.9-80.3% similarity with non-Korean IBV strains. Phylogenetic tree analysis revealed that some of the IBV isolates appear to belong to a new group, different from the non-Korean IBV strains or from previously isolated Korean IBV strains. Specifically, the new Korean IBV isolates K10217-03, K3-3 and K1255-03 represented a separate group. These findings suggest that the Korean IBVs appear to be continuously evolving.

Glial cells in the Drosophila embryonic nervous system can be monitored with the marker Reversed-polarity (Repo), whereas neurons lack Repo and express the RNA-binding protein ELAV (Embryonic Lethal, Abnormal Vision). Since the first description of the ELAV protein distribution in 1991 (Robinow and White), it is believed that ELAV is an exclusive neuronal and postmitotic marker. Looking at ELAV expression, we unexpectedly observed that, in addition to neurons, ELAV is transiently expressed in embryonic glial cells. Furthermore, it is transiently present in the proliferating longitudinal glioblast, and it is transcribed in embryonic neuroblasts. Likewise, elav-Gal4 lines, which are generally used as postmitotic neuronal driver lines, show expression in neural progenitor cells and nearly all embryonic glial cells. Thus, in the embryo, elav can no longer be considered an exclusive marker or driver for postmitotic neurons. elav loss-of-function mutants show no obvious effects on the number and pattern of embryonic glia.

A major part of horizontal gene transfer that contributes to the diversification and adaptation of bacteria is facilitated by genomic islands. The evolution of these islands is poorly understood. Some progress was made with the identification of a set of phylogenetically related genomic islands among the Proteobacteria, recognized from the investigation of the evolutionary origins of a Haemophilus influenzae antibiotic resistance island, namely ICEHin1056. More clarity comes from this comparative analysis of seven complete sequences of the ICEHin1056 genomic island subfamily.

Genetic variants in the FTO (fat mass and obesity associated) gene have been associated with an increased risk of obesity. However, the function of its protein product has not been experimentally studied and previously reported sequence similarity analyses suggested the absence of homologs in existing protein databases. Here, we present the first detailed computational analysis of the sequence and predicted structure of the protein encoded by FTO.

Whilst evidence exists for the influence of encouragement on physical activity participation, the diversity of support sources and the type of physical activity examined previously is limited. This study examined the importance of perceived encouragement from parents, siblings/cousins, friends, and schools on participation levels across three time-specific activity opportunities that are available during a school day (after-school physical activities, lunchtime activity, and active transportation to and from school).

Ganoderma lucidum has been widely used as a herbal medicine for promoting health and longevity in China and other Asian countries. Polysaccharide extracts from Ganoderma lucidum have been reported to exhibit immuno-modulating and anti-tumor activities. In previous studies, F3, the active component of the polysaccharide extract, was found to activate various cytokines such as IL-1, IL-6, IL-12, and TNF-alpha. This gave rise to our investigation on how F3 stimulates immuno-modulating or anti-tumor effects in human leukemia THP-1 cells.

Ribosome binding factor A (RbfA) is a bacterial cold shock response protein, required for an efficient processing of the 5' end of the 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) during assembly of the small (30S) ribosomal subunit. Here we present a crystal structure of Thermus thermophilus (Tth) RbfA and a three-dimensional cryo-electron microscopic (EM) map of the Tth 30S*RbfA complex. RbfA binds to the 30S subunit in a position overlapping the binding sites of the A and P site tRNAs, and RbfA's functionally important C terminus extends toward the 5' end of the 16S rRNA. In the presence of RbfA, a portion of the 16S rRNA encompassing helix 44, which is known to be directly involved in mRNA decoding and tRNA binding, is displaced. These results shed light on the role played by RbfA during maturation of the 30S subunit, and also indicate how RbfA provides cells with a translational advantage under conditions of cold shock.

Investigations of intermanual transfer of learning have demonstrated that individuals can transfer acquired motor skills from one hand to the other. The purpose of the current study was to use fMRI to investigate the potential overlap of neural regions engaged during learning and at transfer of learning from the dominant arm to the non-dominant arm during sensorimotor adaptation. Participants performed a visuomotor adaptation joystick task where they adapted manual aiming movements to a 30 degrees rotation of the visual feedback display. They performed eleven blocks (24 trials/block) of right-hand adaptation before performing the task with their left hand (transfer). Participants showed a selective transfer of learning effect: prior right-hand practice led to reduced endpoint errors but not trajectory errors for the left hand. This is consistent with work showing that the right arm is specialized for trajectory control while the left is specialized for endpoint control [Sainburg, R.L., 2005. Handedness, Differential specializations for control of trajectory and position. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 33, 206-213.]. Early adaptation processes were associated with activation in frontal and parietal regions, including bilateral dorsal premotor cortex. At transfer, activation was seen in the temporal cortex as well as the right medial frontal gyrus and the middle occipital gyrus. These regions have been observed in other studies during the late phases of sensorimotor adaptation. Integrating these data with the existing literature, we suggest that the left dorsal premotor cortex contributes to trajectory control, while the left visual and temporal cortices contribute to endpoint control.

Analysis of grey matter on MRI utilising voxel-based morphometry (VBM) may have insufficient sensitivity for routine clinical application. The aim of this exploratory study was to evaluate combined analysis of grey and white matter using VBM for detecting focal lesions underlying childhood epilepsy, and to establish the optimal statistical parameters in this context.

Biological aging is associated with the oxidation and/or aggregation of a variety of proteins, which may contribute to the age-dependent loss of function. Protein modification can be caused by multiple chemical mechanisms, which may selectively target specific proteins. Here we show that the ZnT-1 isoform of the family of cation diffusion facilitators suffers age-dependent oxidation and covalent aggregation. Parallel in vitro experiments with a plasma membrane-rich fraction and recombinant ZnT-1 suggest that ZnT-1 aggregation may be caused by metal-catalyzed oxidation (MCO). The latter would be consistent with the known propensity of metal-binding proteins to suffer MCO.

Are objects coded by a small number of neurons or cortical regions that respond preferentially to the object in question, or by more distributed patterns of responses, including neurons or regions that respond only weakly? Distributed codes can represent a larger number of alternative items than sparse codes but produce ambiguities when multiple items are represented simultaneously (the "superposition" problem). Recent studies found category information in the distributed pattern of response across the ventral visual pathway, including in regions that do not "prefer" the object in question. However, these studies measured neural responses to isolated objects, a situation atypical of real-world vision, where multiple objects are usually present simultaneously ("clutter"). We report that information in the spatial pattern of fMRI response about standard object categories is severely disrupted by clutter and eliminated when attention is diverted. However, information about preferred categories in category-specific regions is undiminished by clutter and partly preserved under diverted attention. These findings indicate that in natural conditions, the pattern of fMRI response provides robust category information only for objects coded in selective cortical regions and highlight the vulnerability of distributed representations to clutter and the advantages of sparse cortical codes in mitigating clutter costs.

In a landmark paper, Nadeau and Taylor [18] formulated the random breakage model (RBM) of chromosome evolution that postulates that there are no rearrangement hotspots in the human genome. In the next two decades, numerous studies with progressively increasing levels of resolution made RBM the de facto theory of chromosome evolution. Despite the fact that RBM had prophetic prediction power, it was recently refuted by Pevzner and Tesler [4], who introduced the fragile breakage model (FBM), postulating that the human genome is a mosaic of solid regions (with low propensity for rearrangements) and fragile regions (rearrangement hotspots). However, the rebuttal of RBM caused a controversy and led to a split among researchers studying genome evolution. In particular, it remains unclear whether some complex rearrangements (e.g., transpositions) can create an appearance of rearrangement hotspots. We contribute to the ongoing debate by analyzing multi-break rearrangements that break a genome into multiple fragments and further glue them together in a new order. In particular, we demonstrate that (1) even if transpositions were a dominant force in mammalian evolution, the arguments in favor of FBM still stand, and (2) the "gene deletion" argument against FBM is flawed.

Migratory waterfowl of the world are the natural reservoirs of influenza viruses of all known subtypes. However, it is unknown whether these waterfowl perpetuate highly pathogenic (HP) H5 and H7 avian influenza viruses. Here we report influenza virus surveillance from 2001 to 2006 in wild ducks in Alberta, Canada, and in shorebirds and gulls at Delaware Bay (New Jersey), United States, and examine the frequency of exchange of influenza viruses between the Eurasian and American virus clades, or superfamilies. Influenza viruses belonging to each of the subtypes H1 through H13 and N1 through N9 were detected in these waterfowl, but H14 and H15 were not found. Viruses of the HP Asian H5N1 subtypes were not detected, and serologic studies in adult mallard ducks provided no evidence of their circulation. The recently described H16 subtype of influenza viruses was detected in American shorebirds and gulls but not in ducks. We also found an unusual cluster of H7N3 influenza viruses in shorebirds and gulls that was able to replicate well in chickens and kill chicken embryos. Genetic analysis of 6,767 avian influenza gene segments and 248 complete avian influenza viruses supported the notion that the exchange of entire influenza viruses between the Eurasian and American clades does not occur frequently. Overall, the available evidence does not support the perpetuation of HP H5N1 influenza in migratory birds and suggests that the introduction of HP Asian H5N1 to the Americas by migratory birds is likely to be a rare event.

Plasmodium undergoes one round of multiplication in the liver prior to invading erythrocytes and initiating the symptomatic blood phase of the malaria infection. Productive hepatocyte infection by sporozoites leads to the generation of thousands of merozoites capable of erythrocyte invasion. Merozoites are released from infected hepatocytes as merosomes, packets of hundreds of parasites surrounded by host cell membrane. Intravital microscopy of green fluorescent protein-expressing P. yoelii parasites showed that the majority of merosomes exit the liver intact, adapt a relatively uniform size of 12-18 microm, and contain 100-200 merozoites. Merosomes survived the subsequent passage through the right heart undamaged and accumulated in the lungs. Merosomes were absent from blood harvested from the left ventricle and from tail vein blood, indicating that the lungs effectively cleared the blood from all large parasite aggregates. Accordingly, merosomes were not detectable in major organs such as brain, kidney, and spleen. The failure of annexin V to label merosomes collected from hepatic effluent indicates that phosphatidylserine is not exposed on the surface of the merosome membrane suggesting the infected hepatocyte did not undergo apoptosis prior to merosome release. Merosomal merozoites continued to express green fluorescent protein and did not incorporate propidium iodide or YO-PRO-1 indicating parasite viability and an intact merosome membrane. Evidence of merosomal merozoite infectivity was provided by hepatic effluent containing merosomes being significantly more infective than blood with an identical low-level parasitemia. Ex vivo analysis showed that merosomes eventually disintegrate inside pulmonary capillaries, thus liberating merozoites into the bloodstream. We conclude that merosome packaging protects hepatic merozoites from phagocytic attack by sinusoidal Kupffer cells, and that release into the lung microvasculature enhances the chance of successful erythrocyte invasion. We believe this previously unknown part of the plasmodial life cycle ensures an effective transition from the liver to the blood phase of the malaria infection.

Riboswitches are noncoding RNA structures that appropriately regulate genes in response to changing cellular conditions. The expression of many proteins involved in fundamental metabolic processes is controlled by riboswitches that sense relevant small molecule ligands. Metabolite-binding riboswitches that recognize adenosylcobalamin (AdoCbl), thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP), lysine, glycine, flavin mononucleotide (FMN), guanine, adenine, glucosamine-6-phosphate (GlcN6P), 7-aminoethyl 7-deazaguanine (preQ1), and S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) have been reported.

Freezing lesions to developing rat cortex induced between postnatal day (P) one and three (P1 - 3) lead to malformations similar to human microgyria, and further correspond to reductions in brain weight and cortical volume. In contrast, comparable lesions on P5 do not produce microgyric malformations, nor the changes in brain weight seen with microgyria. However, injury occurring at all three ages does lead to rapid auditory processing deficits as measured in the juvenile period. Interestingly, these deficits persist into adulthood only in the P1 lesion case 1. Given prior evidence that early focal cortical lesions induce abnormalities in cortical morphology and connectivity 1234, we hypothesized that the differential behavioral effects of focal cortical lesions on P1, P3 or P5 may be associated with underlying neuroanatomical changes that are sensitive to timing of injury. Clinical studies indicate that humans with perinatal brain injury often show regional reductions in corpus callosum size and abnormal symmetry, which frequently correspond to learning impairments 567. Therefore, in the current study the brains of P1, 3 or 5 lesion rats, previously evaluated for brain weight, and cortical volume changes and auditory processing impairments (P21-90), were further analyzed for changes in corpus callosum volume.

The Apicomplexa are a diverse group of obligate protozoan parasites infesting a wide range of invertebrate and vertebrate hosts including humans. These parasites are notoriously difficult to control and many species continue to evolve resistance to commercial antibiotics. In this study, we sought to find an effective chemotherapeutic treatment against arthropod gregarines (Apicomplexa), and to identify candidate compounds for testing against other groups of protozoan parasites.

A single bout of exercise increases the rate of muscle glucose transport (GT) by both insulin-independent and insulin-dependent mechanisms. The purpose of this study was to determine whether high-fat diet (HFD) feeding interferes with the metabolic activation induced by moderate-intensity endurance exercise. Rats were fed an HFD or control diet (CD) for 4 weeks and then exercised on a treadmill for 1 hour (19 m/min, 15% incline). Insulin-independent GT was markedly higher in soleus muscle dissected immediately after exercise than in muscle dissected from sedentary rats in both dietary groups, but insulin-independent GT was 25% lower in HFD-fed than in CD-fed rats. Insulin-dependent GT in the presence of submaximally effective concentration of insulin (0.9 nmol/L) was also higher in both dietary groups in muscle dissected 2 hours after exercise, but was 25% lower in HFD-fed than in CD-fed rats. Exercise-induced activation of 5'adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, a signaling intermediary leading to insulin-independent GT and regulating insulin sensitivity, was correspondingly blunted in the HFD group. High-fat diet did not affect glucose transporter 4 content or insulin-stimulated Akt phosphorylation. Our findings provide evidence that an HFD impairs the effects of short-term endurance exercise on glucose metabolism and that exercise does not fully compensate for HFD-induced insulin resistance in skeletal muscle. Although the underlying mechanism is unclear, reduced 5'adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase activation during exercise may play a role.

The translation of 11C-labeled compounds into their respective 18F-labeled derivatives is an important tool in the rapid development of positron emission tomography (PET) tracers. Thus, our aim was the development of a general method for the preparation of 18F-fluoroethylated compounds that (a) is applicable to a variety of precursors, (b) can be performed in a fully automated commercially available synthesizer and (c) enables this rapid translation of 11C-methylated tracers into their 18F-fluoroethylated analogs sharing the same precursor molecules.

The mouse response to acute Salmonella typhimurium infection is complex, and it is under the influence of several genes, as well as environmental factors. In a previous study, we identified two novel Salmonella susceptibility loci, Ity4 and Ity5, in a (AcB61 x 129S6)F2 cross. The peak logarithm of odds score associated with Ity4 maps to the region of the liver and red blood cell (RBC)-specific pyruvate kinase (Pklr) gene, which was previously shown to be mutated in AcB61. During Plasmodium chabaudi infection, the Pklr mutation protects the mice against this parasite, as indicated by improved survival and lower peak parasitemia. Given that RBC defects have previously been associated with resistance to malaria and susceptibility to Salmonella, we hypothesized that Pklr is the gene underlying Ity4 and that it confers susceptibility to acute S. typhimurium infection in mice. Using a fine mapping approach combined with complementation studies, comparative studies, and functional analysis, we show that Pklr is the gene underlying Ity4 and that it confers susceptibility to acute S. typhimurium infection in mice through its effect on the RBC turnover and iron metabolism.